Expanding characterization and evaluation activities and developing collecting of germplasm

There is no doubt that improving the characterization and evaluation of the conserved accessions allows and increases the efficiency of their use, considering that proper documentation is required, also to register landraces and to enable their protection by property rights. AREA, through NGRC and its affiliated regional research stations and specialized research centres located in the different agroclimatic zones, has implemented many research programmes and projects related to the characterization and evaluation of local varieties of cereals, vegetables and fruit tree crops. The main studies carried out are summarized in Table 1 and their results were published in the Yemeni Journal of Research and Studies (YJARS), issued biannually by AREA.

Regarding the field collections, teams of researchers undertook the characterization of varieties of mango, coffee, date palm and grapes in different regions of Yemen. As a reference standard, the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) descriptors were used. For example, in 2021, a team of researchers at the Northern Highlands Research Station (NHRS) characterized 45 genotypes (14 grape, 20 apricot, 3 pear, 4 fig and 4 peach genotypes).

In 2022, five grape varieties and five pomegranate varieties were characterized. The results of the cluster analysis confirmed the distinct diversity among grape and pomegranate varieties both of which are among the most popular fruit crops in Yemen (Al-Dalas, Al-Hazar, Sheki, Al-Hadri, & Al-Ashwal, 2022).

The same is true for coffee, as several genotypes have been described in Sana’a Governorate. A team of researchers at the Al-Wadi and Al-Sahra Research Station (WSRS) in Seiyun, Hadramaut, also characterized date palm varieties in the Yemeni governorates where the crop is cultivated (AREA, 2013).

As for mango, all varieties grown in Yemen have been characterized, including 26 varieties introduced by the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation and AREA (Al-Munaifi, 2022). In this context, it is worth noting that documentation and description of mango varieties spread in Yemen were also implemented by AREA with the support of the Sultanic Dewan of Oman and included in the collection (AREA, 2013).

Upon reviewing the NGRC technical reports and the project reports implemented through the centre, specifically those focused on characterizing accessions stored in the genebank (Table 2), significant weaknesses were identified. These included inconsistency in the data and repetition in the description of some accessions.

For example, 1,967 sorghum accessions, more than 1,320 millet accessions, 883 wheat seed accessions and 918 barley seed accessions were characterized (Table 2), and the most prominent results of this characterization can be summarized as follows:- Every report from NGRC included activities related to the phenotypic characterization of genetic resource accessions.- There was a repetition in the characterization for some accessions because of the weak management operations in the genebank, especially in documentation. The number of wheat and barley accessions characterized exceeds the actual number of accessions preserved in the genebank.- The inadequate quality and accuracy of characterization data were clearly demonstrated, as it was noted that these reports depend on a limited number of descriptors that were studied or documented.- Some technical reports were prepared in a systematic manner and were scientifically sound, but they were not published in the form of evidence or scientific articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals.- The results on varietal characterization were not documented with photos highlighting the characteristics of the local landraces and genotypes that were studied or referred to verbally in the reports.

In this context, it is also worth noting that some accessions of millet, wheat and sorghum were genetically characterized using molecular markers to determine their degree of genetic relatedness, through the ‘Rainfed Agriculture and Livestock’ project (2006–2013) and the ‘Agricultural Biodiversity and Adaptation to Climate Change’ project (2014–2015), both funded by the World Bank in collaboration with the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) and NGRC.

Encouraging crop diversity

The information collected for this paper, through reviewing the main and secondary references, revealed that the optimal use of genebank holdings can take different forms to encourage crop diversity utilization in the country. Some important examples of PGR use are summarized below:Lin, 2011). Therefore, diversification in crop production must be encouraged to meet local and national needs as well as to improve prevailing dietary patterns.- In cooperation between FAO and AREA, quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) was introduced and evaluated in farmers’ fields, starting in 2013 with the introduction of several types of quinoa. Many genotypes were evaluated on the research farms in Sana'a, Taiz, Dhamar and Al-Kadan under different environmental conditions. In 2014 and 2015, the productivity of three varieties was evaluated at the research farm in the central highlands, to obtain a variety with high fodder and grain productivity suitable for the conditions of the region (Daws & Al-Muallem, 2018). - The WSRS in Seiyun, Hadhramaut Governorate, has evaluated and propagated Haidawan (Boerhavia elegans), a naturally growing local plant with significant nutritional value. This plant is commonly used as a food ingredient in the dietary meals of the Hadhramaut community, as well as in the Al-Mahra and Shabwa Governorates. One notable dish that features Haidawan is the ‘Aseed’ meal, a porridge made with mashed dates and sesame oil, locally known as ‘Salit Juljul’. Haidawan is rich in bioactive compounds, including antioxidants and essential nutrients, which contribute to its health benefits. In addition to its use in Aseed, Haidawan seeds are often ground into flour and incorporated into various traditional recipes. The seeds are also recognized for their potential to enhance the nutritional profile of foods such as biscuits (Kanzal & Madhi, 2012).- Introducing varieties of beans, lentils, peas, wheat, and barley into governorates where the cultivation of such crops has declined because of economic and social factors, for example in Dhamar Governorate (in the districts of Jahran, Ans, Utomah, and Al-Hada), Sana’a Governorate (in the Bani Matar district), and Al-Mahwit Governorate (in Shibam and Al-Dhula’a districts), Ibb Governorate (in Yarim district), Hajjah Governorate (in Kuhlan Af’far District) and Amran Governorate (in Qa’a Al-Bawn). Expanding the cultivation of legume crops is one of the priorities of agricultural policymakers at present, especially considering war and siege conditions. It is worth noting in this context that the introduction and encouragement of the cultivation of these crops and their varieties have taken place through several projects, such as the ‘Food Security Project’, funded by the Islamic Development Bank (IsDB), the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development and the State of Qatar. Additionally, the ‘Participatory conservation and sustainable use of local landraces to improve the livelihood and resilience of farmers to climate change in Yemen’ project, funded by FAO (FAO, 2019), has introduced and spread legume varieties in areas with very limited legume cultivation. One of the most important obstacles facing the expansion of legume cultivation is the reluctance of farmers to grow these crops that need guarding and protection because people uproot the plants and eat the green immature pods or fruits directly, especially since the number of farmers who grow these crops is limited so far. - Introducing varieties of almond and coffee and encouraging farmers in Sana’a Governorate (Haraz, Al-Haymah and Bani Matar districts) to grow these crop varieties to increase crop diversity (Y30, 2023). The same is also noted in the case of Ibb Governorate (Al-Saddah, Al-Nadira and Wadi Banna districts) and in Taiz Governorate (Al-Mawaset, Mawiya and Al-Shamaytain districts) (UNDP, 2021).- In Dhamar Governorate (Utomah District), the Agriculture Office (AO) implemented many activities encouraging crop diversification. In addition to the expansion and spread of coffee and almond trees in the district stated above, new types of fruits have also been introduced, such as kiwi, blackberry, pomegranate, Sa’adi grape and Annona fruit crops. It was also noted that some innovative farmers in other governorates began individually to grow cardamom (Sana’a Governorate) and ginger (Al-Mahwit Governorate). - The ‘Rainfed Agriculture and Livestock’ project funded by the World Bank in 2006–2013 included an activity related to promoting on-farm conservation and sustainable use of landraces of cereals, food legumes and vegetables, implemented jointly by ICARDA and AREA. This project provided examples of added-value technologies and alternative sources of income along with institutional arrangements. It has established 70 seed producer associations in five governorates to multiply and distribute seeds of landraces of sorghum, millet, wheat, barley, maize, lentil and faba bean.

Supporting breeding and genetic improvement programmes

The genetic material that has been – or is being – collected can be used to identify or select distinctive traits to develop crop varieties as needed, or to expand the genetic base of a breeding programme. Such traits may include earliness of the local varieties (of cereal and leguminous crops), or drought resistance and salt tolerance in some other local varieties, and good-quality attributes needed by breeding programmes to develop new high-yielding and climate-resilient varieties.

In this regard, the NGRC in Dhamar provided seed samples of many local varieties in response to requests from researchers and graduate students in various Yemeni agricultural regions to implement genetic improvement activities. However, these requests are still very limited compared to the available genetic material preserved in the genebank (Table 3).

Plant breeders at AREA agricultural research stations have implemented many breeding programmes using mutations through external projects funded by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), or through local projects funded by the annual government budget, and the work on these programmes is still ongoing. Distinctive successes have been achieved in this aspect, especially in sesame and barley. Three varieties of sesame were released: Hazza-1 and Hazza-2, both distinguished by their red seed colour and superior productivity compared to local varieties, and Hazza-3, noted for its white seed colour, high yield and high oil content. Varieties of wheat, barley, fenugreek and lentils were also released in the northern highlands as part of the mutation programme.

Between 2013 and 2020, a total of 93 research activities were conducted in the field of variety evaluation and improvement across AREA branches, including regional research stations and national centres (Table 4).

In 2021, thanks to AREA, many varieties of several crops, including wheat, barley, corn, lentils, beans and peas were released by the High Committee for Registration of Agricultural Varieties and Technologies (HCRAVT), which includes representatives of various relevant authorities. These varieties were delivered by AREA to the public Corporation for Improved Seed Multiplication (GSMC) in a special ceremony sponsored by Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (Table 5).

The Genetic Resource Center (GRC) of the College of Agriculture, Sana'a University also implemented many activities such as the evaluation of landraces and breeding by selection method during the period 2014–2019, the most important of which were the following (personal communication, Dr Mohammed Al-Aswadi, GRC Director, College of Agriculture, Sana’a University, 2022):

These advancements are integral to genetic improvement programmes aimed at enhancing traits such as earliness, drought resistance and heat tolerance. The productivity of these varieties has been significantly improved through the purification and maintenance of local varieties well-adapted to Yemen’s predominantly arid climate. The improvement process involves selecting plant heads based on distinctive characteristics such as size, weight and yield.

Supporting seed production and distribution

To ensure the use of available PGR, effective seed systems must guarantee that the seeds adopted by farmers for cultivation are available in sufficient quantity, of high quality, and can be obtained by farmers at the right time, in the right place and at reasonable prices.

During the past decade, AREA and GSMC received funding from FAO to produce and distribute seeds to farmers as part of humanitarian aid. These seeds include locally adapted varieties such as sorghum, millet, barley and lentils, which are crucial for maintaining agricultural biodiversity and resilience. These local varieties, inherited by farmers from their ancestors, are well-adapted to climate change and represent an important genetic resource for improving agricultural production. Therefore, the multiplication and distribution of these local seeds were vital for preserving genetic resources and ensuring their sustainable use.

It should be noted here that after problems occurred due to distribution of low-quality seeds of cereal crops by some humanitarian aid organizations, the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation stipulated that organizations and providers of seed distribution services to farmers must have the seeds screened and packaged in the stores and warehouses of the GSMC. FAO’s support and funding for AREA and GSMC came within the framework of strengthening its capabilities to fulfil any resulting obligations or requirements from the execution of the Ministry’s new instructions.

However, there was an increase in cultivated areas and the production of improved seeds for certain crops during specific years (2014–2017). These seeds were distributed to farmers based on their needs and the availability of funding from supporting organizations. It is worth noting that despite fluctuations observed in subsequent years, there was still a notable effort to expand distribution to beneficiary farmers (Table 6).

In 2016, the General Corporation for Grain Production Improvement (PCGDP) played a significant role in boosting the production of improved seeds across several governorates, particularly focusing on wheat, and selling them at reasonable prices. The Corporation entered into agreements with numerous farmers, providing them with seeds and essential production inputs such as fertilizers and irrigation to encourage the expansion of wheat cultivation. After the harvest, the Corporation purchased the crops from the farmers, deducting the costs of the seeds and production inputs provided. The quantities distributed by the General Corporation for Grain Production Improvement increased from 52 tonnes in 2018 to 640 tonnes in 2022 (Figure 1).

Since 2015, several international organizations in Yemen have launched rapid response programmes to support farmers during the ongoing conflict. These programmes involve purchasing and distributing seeds through national partners like GSMC and AREA. The seeds are usually sourced directly from farmers, especially for crops like sorghum and millet, or from research and multiplication institutions.